The title art as well as architecture of Repoblacion has currently been used in creative works, primarily architectural that were completed in Christian kingdoms in the north of Spain in between the endings of the ninth and beginning of eleventh century. This covers all the structures which until recently had been considered as Mozarabic and hence called, as well as cataloged in accordance with the lines marked by Moreno. The recent historiography tends to appear partial to abandoning the title as it is a very much of a proven argument that such buildings do not carry the origin, which have been attributed to them.

Now, this does not imply that in case of northern peninsular architecture of the tenth century, which includes the religious, Muslim influences had not been appreciated, predictable on the other hand as in a condition of neighboring a caliphate, cultural, as well as artistic instead it is maintained that such monumental buildings have not been owed to modest groups of Mozarabic immigrants, who settled in areas of repopulation as the living conditions of al-Andalus were barely tolerable.

The art as well as the architecture of Repoblacion have been identified with third subset of Hispanic Pre-Romanesque era, by way of the phases, which correspond in regard to the Asturian art and Visigothic art. Its architecture has been a summary of constituents of varied extraction unequally distributed, of a form, which in occasions prevail those of Asturian, paleo-Christian, or Visigothic origin, while at the other times emphasize the Muslim impression.

In any case, some signs of characterizations of such ecclesial architectural style involve various features. Such as Basilica or centralized plan, which were sometimes with opposing apses. The use of horseshoe arch as of Muslim evocation that was somewhat more closed as well as sloped is another visible feature of such structures. The Principal chapel is usually of rectangular plan on exterior and ultra semicircular in interior.

Other features include generalized usage of the alfiz, usage of the geminated as well as tripled windows as of Asturian tradition. Grouped columns, which form composite pillars, with the Corinthian capital ornamented with stylized constituents as well as cincture joined to it, apart from covering by way of segmented vaults, which includes by traditional barrel vaults are some other features, of this style of architecture.

The Church of Santa Maria de Retortillo (Burgos), Church of San Cebrian de Mazote (Valladolid), Chapel of San Miguel de Celanova (Ourense), Tower of Dona Urraca, Covarrubias (Burgos), Monastery of San Millan de la Cogolla (La Rioja) and the Church of San Julian de Boada (Girona) are few glorious examples of Repoblación art and architecture.

Pre-Romanesque Art and Architecture was established from late 8 century to 11 century. This art and architecture emerged from Merovingian kingdom and Carolingian Renaissance flourished till the beginning of Romanesque period. Romanesque Art is mainly used for monumental sculpture. During the period of 8 century to 11 century, theme was based on introduction of Mediterranean and Christian forms with addition of Germanic features.

Carolingian art was common during the time span of 120 years, stating from 780 to 900 AD. Charlemagne and his successor rule were popularly known as Carolingian Renaissance. Though it was authoritative despite of the fact, many northern European kings encouraged forms of classical Mediterranean Roman art for the first time. European kings also created inventive forms with naturalistic figure line drawings.

Styles of various arts

1. Ottonian art
Ottonian art was used for 120 year from 936 to 1056 AD.  German pre-Romanesque art used art. This art was used during Empire. The holy empire was reestablished after the decline of Carolingian Empire. New improved churches were created which heighted cultural and artist enthusiasm. Ottonian artist created many masterpieces which comprises of traditional values for example models of Late Antique, Carolingian, and Byzantine origin.

Most of the significant medieval manuscripts were produced by Ottonian monasteries. These monasteries received sponsorship from emperors and bishops in order to put on their best effort.

2. Croatia style
Croatia style was the sign to implement their religious values. Croats, Slavs and Avars came from northern Europe during 7 century. Initially the Croatian churches were build, as royal haven and they were influenced by Roman art. With the time the style experienced much alteration, simplifications and thus the touch of Roman art was fully erased. The churches were constructed by use of roughly cut stone which was bounded by thick layer of malter from outside. Naves were the part of large churches like church of Holy Salvation which was build during 9 century.

The windows and fence of altars were decorated with an ornament called pleter. Pleter was companied with transparent shallow string. Designs were taken from Roman art and even from the figures of bible were used in the decoration for example Holy Nedjeljica in Zadar.

In France, many regional styles developed which were present in Carolingian manuscripts. Itinerant artists brought these designs into existence. The monastery of Saint Bertin gained popularity due to its new style which was based on Anglo-Saxon and Carolingian forms.

Pre-Romanesque Art and Architecture led to many changes in architecture of England, France, Spain, Portugal and Italy.

The Saxons usually made their houses of wood. However, after their conversion to Christianity, a few of their churches were built with stone. Now, the problem with the wooden buildings is that they shall catch fire and decay much easily than in case of stone buildings. This meant that they had to be reinstated more often. As a matter of fact, some evidence suggest that, especially amongst the nobility, it was used to be considered not worthy enough to live in some old building. Due to this reason, certain perfectly serviceable buildings had been replaced, simply for satisfying than personal vanity.

The Vikings have also been known to have a long history of buildings in wood, and several of the early medieval churches in wood from Scandinavia have been able to survive till this day. However, wood had not been so plentiful in certain parts of Scandinavia. Due to this reason, other materials like stone and turf had to be used as well.

Almost all the buildings tend to fit in one of two major categories, i.e. framed buildings and sunken featured buildings. Both the types are generally square or rectangular. However, a few examples of circular structures of each are known as well. Sunken featured buildings refer to those, in which a pit forms a part of structure, either as living space, or as a kind of undercroft. They would have a framed timber superstructure over them. The framed buildings refer to those where the entire building would gain its strength from the timber frame, which would be built around a set of posts set up in the ground.

The old idea in terms of sunken floored huts had led to the reconstructions of these structures which were not more than a kind of pit with a roof. Now, while this might be true for the sunken featured buildings, which were used as workshops, the recent reconstructions have revealed that this is a wrong idea for housing. In case the roof is set up directly over the pit, then a number of problems would follow. Such as, the place where the thatches meet the ground they tend to rot very quickly and require repairing on a frequent basis.

The framed buildings on the other hand relied on setting up a large number of posts into the ground in order to form the basis of the walls. A wall plate would then be used for joining all the beams in every wall of the building. The tie beams running around the building, and roof frames, were secured with the wall plates.

The Westminster Abbey is a very popular term, which is used for denoting the Collegiate Church of  St Peter at Westminster. It is a large, primarily Gothic church, of Westminster. It is a traditional place for coronation and a burial site for the English, as well as the monarchs of Commonwealth Realms. It held the status of cathedral for a brief period and today it is a Royal Peculiar.

According to the traditional view, the Abbey was founded on the current site. It seems to be quoted in order to justify presents of salmons from the Thames fishermen, which the Abbey received in the later years. As it is, Saint Dunstan, with the help of apt assistance from King Edgar, had planted a community for the Benedictine monks here. In fact a stone Abbey was built by King Edward as a part of his palace. It got consecrated on December 28, 1065, only a week prior to the death of King Edward and his subsequent funeral, as well as burial. It was a site for the last coronation before the Norman Invasion and that of King Harold, his successor. It was later on rebuilt by Henry III who had selected this site for his burial.

The only existing description of the original Abbey, together with adjacent Palace in Westminster, is in Bayeux Tapestry. It is, in the Romanesque style, which is referred to as Norman in England. The improved endowments played a major role in supporting a community, which had incrimination from a dozen monks in the original foundation of Dunstan, to around eighty monks.

The Abbot, along with the learned monks, in close proximity with the Royal Palace of Westminster and the seat of the government from later twelfth century, which became a major force in centuries after the Norman Conquest. The Abbot was often used for royal service and in subsequent course took up his place in House of Lords as of right. Released from burden of spiritual leadership that passed to the reformed Cluniac movement, after the mid-tenth century, as well as occupied with administration of the great landed properties, a few of which lay far away from Westminster.

The proximity with the Palace of Westminster had not extended to provide monks as well as abbots with the high royal connections in terms of social origin; the Benedictines of the Westminster had been as modest as in most of the order. As it is, the abbot stayed as Lord of Manor of Westminster as the town of around two to three thousand people grew around it. The abbey built around shops, as well as dwellings on west side.

Anglo-Saxon architecture refers to a marvelous style of architecture, which prevailed during the fifth century in England, as well as parts of Wales, until the Norman Conquest. The Anglo-Saxon buildings of Britain were usually simple, constructed primarily with the use of timber, along with thatch for the purpose of roofing. Usually, preferring not to stay in old Roman cities, these small towns were built by the Anglo-Saxons, near their centers of agriculture. The towns carry evidence of main halls, as well as other forms of building in the towns.

There are a few remains of the Anglo-Saxon architecture. As it is, till date, around fifty churches have their origins rooted in Anglo-Saxon architecture, with several others claiming to be of such origin. However, in a few cases, the Anglo-Saxon architectural part is rather small, as well as much altered. All the surviving churches, except a timber church, had been built of stones or bricks and in a few cases have shown evidence of reused Roman works.

The architectural features of Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical structures range from the Coptic influenced architecture of the early period, the early Christian basilica inclined architecture, as well as in later Anglo-Saxon period, the architecture featured by pilaster-strips, baluster shafts, blank arcading, as well as triangular headed openings.

The fall of the Roman Britain in the beginning of fifth century, is believed to have allowed an influx of the invaders from north Germany including Angles and the Saxons. Their structures were rectangular post built constructions, where timber posts would be driven into the ground in order to form the frame of the walls on which the roofs were to be constructed. Although not much, in terms of contemporary evidence has survived; the methods of construction, which includes examples of later buildings, can be compared to the methods of the continent.

The Saxons and the Angles had their own religion, although Christianity was on its rise. St Patrick, who was a Romano-British man, was instrumental in converting Ireland to Christianity. Initially the architecture was influenced by the Coptic monasticism. Christianity along with the Irish influence entered England through the missionaries. The mission of St Augustine came from Rome to England in order to establish Christian influence in the south, and founded the very first cathedral along with the Benedictine monastery at Canterbury. Subsequent Viking invasions resulted in a period of destruction, marked by the demolition of several buildings. These buildings were later on rebuilt.

Landscape architecture is a modern environment profession which represents a fusion of art, science and technical skills. It supports the care practice of Earth environment. Landscape architecture involves the practice of investigation and designed response of the specific landscape.

Various other activities of this profession include site planning, environmental restoration, town or urban planning, urban design, parks and recreation planning; green infrastructure planning. These activities are carried out with planning and management. The person who involves in the activities of landscape architecture is called as landscape architect.

Landscape Architecture History
Landscape architecture was brought by simple gardening. Gardening and landscape gardening comprises of planting, landform, water, paving and other features. Garden design is restricted to a specified area such as parks, garden etc but landscape gardening there is no limit it means and landscape designs include the design of enclosed space and unenclosed space both.

Landscape Architecture during Renaissance

• The people of Rome carried out landscape architecture at wide range scale. Vitruvius writings involve the topic of landscape architects. Pleasure grounds at the Villa d’Este, Tivoli, Italy are the finest examples of garden designs. During the period of 16 and 17 centuries the renaissance gardens were developed. Andre le Notre work at Vaux-le-Vicomte and Versailles was magnificent feature of landscape architecture.
• England became popular during 18th century due to its landscape design features. William Kent, Humphry Repton and Lancelot ‘Capability’ Brown modernized the estate parks of England. Thus their effort brought neat and tidy environment in at places of England. Some of these parks still prevailed at the premises of England. Firstly the term ‘Landscape Architecture’ was used by Scotsman Gilbert Laing Meason in his book which was based Landscape Architecture of the Great Painters of Italy. It book was about the architecture that is found in landscape paintings.

During 19 century, urban planning came into existence which was combination of modern planning features with the accent of landscape gardening. During the mid of 19 century huge series of landscape architectural parks were set up by Frederick Law Olmsted and these parks are still alive.

During 20 century, there were many movements of designs and architecture which were brought into light for healthy environment. In countries of United States and Europe, Martha Schwartz work was remarkable.

Today, the work of landscape architect involves the designs of external space and all types of structures whether the area is rural, urban , small or large. He is also concerned about use of hard and soft material, hydrology and ecological issues.

Nave architecture involves construction of high altar. Nave of the church is widens from the entrance gate and lower passageways are separated from the nave by an arcade. If in case of high passageways there were three naves present in the structure of Church. Naves were mostly considered in Romanesque and Gothic Christian monastery.

In some cases, naves were not completed fully and with the time the designed looked outdated to people thus left their construction in completed.

Detail of Nave Architecture

• As the height of nave is basically kept high thus it provides Space for windows above passageway. These window supply light and ventilation to interior space.
• History of construction of nave with its features led to Roman basilica, it is place where meeting for magistrates and other business was carried out.
• Triforium was inserted in Romanesque structures due to requirement of passage above the walkway.
• With the time, triforium was eliminated and passage way got lowered. Instead of clerestory windows, expensive stainless glass was used.
• Crossing of the nave is that part which intersects its space. This crossing was overcome by a tower or by dome. This feature grew popular in Eastern Churches. This feature was established to west Renaissance. San Lorenzo was designed by Filippo Brunelleschi and was first structure comprising of this feature.
• Filippo Brunelleschi introduced the roman styled basilica which involved features like flat coffered ceiling, small dome and Clerestory windows were still the part of nave.
• The area of chancel and choir was reserved for clergy and nave was reserved for non-clergy.
• During 16 century many new changes were brought in its construction by Protestant reformers.
• Introduction of fixed Pews in the nave took place. Thus occasionally, large open area served for many purposes like market, for political meetings, as a trade center etc.

Naves wee not regarded as clean place and smell of animal dung prevailed in this area thus rood screens were used. Rood screens were used to separate holy area of cathedral from unwashed and other area.

Thus collect more information about nave construction by records of church naves from the internet and now more about nave features.

Eco friendly design techniques of architecture are termed as features of sustainable architecture. The design techniques described in this sustainable architecture includes the features which are beneficial for the environment. Sustainable architecture reduces the negative environment contact of the buildings. Reduction of negative impact of the buildings is done by use of ornamental or modernized materials. Main aim of sustainable architecture is to increase energy efficiency of the building. Many architects use various technique in order to capture or generate buildings own energy.

How to enhance the energy of the building?

• Well insulated building is most important factor. There is requirement of proper ventilation inside the area of building but an efficient building requires less power dissipation and less heat generation.
• Large amount of energy from the buildings is expelled out of it in form of water, air and streams. Thus there should be devices which could capture the energy from these resources and transfer them back in the building.
• The direction of the building and its site was plays an important role on building’s HVAC efficiency.
• To attach the energy of the sun passive solar building design is best option. The energy of the sun is used without establishment of any active solar mechanism or solar hot water panels. Material used in solar buildings retains high thermal mass in order to retain heat efficiently and strong insulation against escaping heat. Solar buildings also include solar shading which is done by blinds or shutters. These shutters during summer reduce the solar heat gain and hence reduce the need of artificial cooling.
• Placement of windows at required places plays important role in minimizing the loss of heat through glass. Thus in northern hemisphere large windows are placed towards the south direction to collect direct sun rays and hence north facing windows are restricted in this area.
• For better insulation double glazed or triple glazed are advantageous over single pane glass windows.
• Plantation allows sometimes plays important role in maintain the energy in the surrounding area for example deciduous trees are planted in front of the windows to block the sun rays during summer and their leaves falls off and proper light enters across the windows during winters.
• Light shelves are also installed to allow sunlight during winters hence this installation effect on usage of heating system inside the building.

Thus sustainable architecture allows the features which could reduce the cost of energy used in certain building.

Vernacular architecture involves the construction method in which local available resources and traditional material are used. Vernacular architecture involves the environmental features, culture and historical context of the place. This architecture is considered as basic architecture which allows the usage of material in their raw form.

On the island of Kauai, Hawaii, plantation cottage style was developed in the era of sugar plantation. This type of architecture is indigenous to specific time or place where it is used. Mostly, residential buildings are constructed using this type of architecture.

Influences on Vernacular Architecture

Climate

• Climates of the place where building is constructed, influences the vernacular architecture. In places having cold climate construction include high insulation features and high thermal mass. Windows are generally made smaller in size and the openings are sealed off to prevent heat loss.
• Buildings in the places having warmer climate are built using lighter material. Proper ventilation is maintained throughout the inner space of the structure.
• At the places having continental climate, building features should be able to withstand the variations in temperature. This building should provide a comfortable space for its occupants according to the seasons.
• The places having high precipitation are usually built with sloping roof instead of flat roof. This slope roof prevents accumulation of snow, water.
• Mediterranean vernacular and architecture of the Middle East includes a courtyard with a fountain or pond. The surrounding air gets cooled by water mist. Evaporation takes places and hence makes the inner space becomes comfortable and soothing for occupants.

Culture
Culture of the occupants also influences the architecture of the building. The size of the building and inner spaces depends on the number of members living in it. The style of inner space depends on their eating habits and on their interaction. The layout of the house depends on other cultural considerations.

1. East African tribe built their house in a group but separate their single roomed houses by marking boundaries. These single room houses are built for each member of family.
2. In Western Europe, in single house there are boundaries for separating each room from other.
3. The appearance of the buildings depends on the decorative items. Thus people living in different regions decorate their houses with different traditional items.
4. The use of wood is common in the architecture of the place having large number of trees.

Environmental conditions and material used governs the characteristics of Vernacular architecture.

Goal of members of monastic religious communities was to   spread Western monastic art and architecture. For about 1200 years, Monasticism led to changes in political, social, and artistic events. Monasticism brought changes from 6 to 18 century.

Monastery is the place where worshiping, gathering for prayers is arranged. It is also the place for residence of religious community. The life of these religious communities bound them with religion and they cut off from the outside world.

History of Monasticism

• During 529, Saint Benedict of Nursia introduced Benedictine order and the Abbey of Monte Cassino in southern Italy. He was associated with Monasticism. The Rule of Saint Benedict explored the main ideas of Saint Gall, Switzerland.
• The original monastic plans were difficult to understand. Monastic plans have general characteristics of courtyard structure in order to ensure privacy.
• Central plan of monastery plan developed by 9 century. Especially in the structure of church space was left purposely for the meetings of the community, the dormitory, the refectory, and storage facilities.
• During end of middles ages, the residence quarters were made for leader of the community separately.
• External schools were also established by some monasteries for children, oblates.
• Water supply was well established with the tendency to reach kitchen before reaching wash rooms and latrines. The entire structure was usually set near stream. Guest rooms were built for their residing.
• Chapels were optional structure for visitors as visitors were not allowed inside the church used by monks or nuns.

What improvement was brought by Monasticism

1. There were many improvements that took place in 11 century due to Monasticism.
2. During 13 century establishment of monks, increased rapidly. Monasticism was set to uplift artistic activities during Middle Ages. The worldly clergy existed along with regular clergy.
3. Throughout the middle ages many riches, greatest and oldest European churches were preserved. They were purposely preserved for their government of worldly canons.

Church was always been most impressive feature of monastic art and architecture. Each church built during early period, was an expression of the ambition of the community to which it belonged. Some of the churches were sign of the wealth and prosperity of the monastery. Leftovers of Saints were preserved behind the high altars as in Sainte-Madeleine in monastic church. Thus the plan of any monastic church reveals the nature of its community. Most churches such as the Dominican Church of Santi Giovanni e Paolo have large naves.

Monastery Architecture was introduced in the construction of churches during Middle Ages.